Belt plates and hooks in Europe 
during the Early Iron Age:
from objects to societies

Rationale and approach

This publication is the result of a workshop held in Alicante on 24-25 November 2023, dedicated to the study of belt elements made of non-perishable materials attested during the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. The geographical scope of the study encompasses Iberia, northern Italy and southern France. The objective of this volume is to offer the first supra-regional overview of belt elements in Iron Age Western Europe, and secondly to propose new scenarios for the production and use of these objects. To this end, an interdisciplinary and critical approach is adopted, based on typological, archaeometric, but also anthropological, social and cultural analyses.

The motivation behind this work aligns with recent trends in the study of various cultural groups, which have exhibited a resurgence of interest in the analysis of ornamental elements of dress. In this volume researchers across different parts of Western Europe have updated their respective catalogues, deepening the typological and chronological understanding of these objects. This has been achieved by employing different criteria and methodological models, adapted to the specific contexts and material repertoires of each region.

The act of fastening a belt is a process that is significantly more intricate than merely securing an item of clothing in position. It may be an expression of a particular social condition, age, gender¹, or cultural identity – whether real or fictional – that can be deciphered² by those observing the object. Therefore, the fundamental premise is that the significance of these items derives from their ability to influence social identity and to convey a narrative representation, which extends beyond their functional use.

Moreover, each of these belts also provides information about the workshops and artisans responsible for their production, the accessibility of the metals utilised, and the technical proficiency required for their fabrication.

An exploration of these similarities and differences prompts a reflection on the nature of the various cultural groups that inhabited the case-study territories.

Furthermore, the systematisation of the methodology applied, and the adoption of a comparative approach, facilitate a more profound comprehension of the motivations of each group as expressed in the ornamentation of their clothing³.

Belts in the Iron Age: A Super Regional Overview

Evidently, during the 1st millennium BCE in west-central Europe, a variety of belt types coexisted, ranging from large to small belts with or without hooks, while their fabrication involved sheet metal or mould casting techniques.

A substantial degree of variation is also observed in relation to gender, social roles and manufacturing techniques.

In consideration of gender, it is evident that belts have been utilised in distinct cultural regions in ways indicative of gender-based representations. While we agree that complexity and the ambiguities in the archaeological burial record point against a strictly binary system and the misuse of biological sex to infer gender⁴, the presented studies suggest regional patterns. For instance, in specific geographical areas, belts appear to be worn exclusively by males, while in other regions, their use was shared independently by both gender. In yet other areas, belts were worn by males as well as females, although this was contingent upon the possession of significant social status.

Moreover, recent studies have focused on the utilisation of belts by women⁵, while some authors have explored the use of belts as indicators of male gender or of roles traditionally associated with it, such as warrior status⁶.

The transmission and reinvention of craft skills and techniques are also crucial, as they are responsible for the circulation of concepts and influences until the circulation of fashions and models.

Contrary to the focus of preceding studies on typological analysis and distribution patterns⁷, recent studies have placed particular emphasis on the technological dimension⁸. This has involved archaeometric analyses and reconstructions of the respective chaînes opératoires.

This approach provides a valuable addition to existing typological and stylistic studies, while offering significant insights into the identification of production workshops and specific phases within the post-foundry (or post-hammering) production chain. These phases include finishing, ornamentation, and repair techniques⁹.

Recent archaeological acquisitions and the re-examination of extant records and museum collections have brought to light the diversity of social actors and artefacts involved in all stages of the interaction processes, particularly artisans¹⁰.

Firstly, they are responsible for the provision of productions that are required in response to specific social needs. Secondly, they participate in the cultural and aesthetic processes of community self-representation, as well as in its economic, technological and political spread.

In this framework, an analysis of belt plates from Northern Italy was conducted using technological and archaeometric methods. This study revealed the presence of ornamentation on all of the plates analysed belonging to the Golasecca culture and on those discovered in San Polo d’Enza, in Western Emilia (respectively Ruffa, Cicolani, this volume).

As revealed by the X-ray analysis of several rectangular belt plates from the Golasecca culture, it can be deduced that this variety of plate was most likely cast in a mould, with the decorative elements being applied in a subsequent step through the use of a chisel, as confirmed by the 3D microscopy study. The analysis lends further credence to a technique that has previously been documented in this area, albeit indirectly: three unfinished specimens from Cascina Riviera factory and a stone mould that was discovered in a workshop in Gropello-Cairoli settlement. By contrast, the squared belt plate, otherwise referred to as the Sant’Ilario type¹¹, exhibits indications of hammering that may be associated with divergent crafting techniques. The samples presented are also characterised by an embossed ornamentation, a feature that has been identified in other examples from the Golasecca culture and the Ligurian settlement of Villa del Foro, suggesting common cultural preferences.

From an archaeometric point of view, elemental analyses indicate the use of binary bronzes: Cu + SN (Sn 3.05 of alloyed Sn -10 %). The led value averages 1-2 %, indicating the presence of native lead in the ore and not a deliberate addition. Concerning the potential sources of ore supply for the lead origin, the chemical composition precludes analysis of its provenance, but it was possible to retrace the origin of the copper. Consequently, it has been determined that the plates are composed of metals originating from the Alpine Arc, particularly in the south-eastern region.

Extended to a more large dataset including fibulae and other clothing items¹², the first results indicate that the primary sources of copper are located in Italy (South-Eastern Alpes) and Slovakia, while the primary sources of lead seem located in the Aegean region (Laurion and Thasos/Kalkidiki). Furthermore, evidence of contacts with Southern Tuscany for copper trade and with Bulgaria and the South-Eastern Iberian Peninsula for lead trade is also present for a few samples. As demonstrated, chemical and isotopic analysis facilitate the identification of diversified supply strategies employed by communities settled in north-western Italy over time. These strategies are indicative of cultural and/or strategic choices (Cicolani, this volume).

This framework can be compared with data available for the Iberian Peninsula and the Gulf of Lion, where recent studies have highlighted the significant role of metal circulation originating in the southern Iberian Peninsula¹³. This circulation is indicative of a distant supply source and is also suggestive of a high degree of interaction between the communities involved.

This dynamic may indeed be reflected in the types of belt buckles discovered in the region, where from the late 7th to the mid-6th century BCE there are examples of hook brooches that feature mould-made decoration (Graells & Lorrio, this volume)¹⁴. It is a noteworthy finding that this type of brooch emerged ex novo, superseding the Tartessian model in southern Iberia during a period when long-range communication networks were emerging (Graells et al., in volume).

Whilst hook brooch designs underwent further evolution in the latter half of the 6th and throughout the 5th century BCE, on a large scale (Constantin, this volume), it was not until the late 5th century BCE that a clearer break with supra-cultural systems became evident, thus paving the way once again for regionally distinctive types – as can be seen in the Iberian plate belt buckles (Navarro, this volume).

A detailed study was conducted in order to examine the morphometric and functional attributes of the belt plates found in the north-western region of Italy. The results of this study allowed the establishment of a novel typology that combines shape, fixation system and ornamentation in a more comprehensive manner (Ruffa, this volume). This approach facilitates the identification of the diversity of belt plate models and the capacity to comparatively analyse similar productions, thereby enhancing comprehension of the social and cultural interconnections between Iron Age communities.

A similar analytical shift has been proposed for the belt buckles of the Iberian Peninsula more broadly, which have recently undergone a radical revision of their typologies¹⁵. The reclassification is grounded in descriptive coding models, which facilitate a more detailed and systematic understanding of buckle types, ultimately supporting the mapping of their variants (see discussion in Graells i Fabregat & Lorrio, this volume). This methodological transition signifies considerable progress from the conventional approach, which placed excessive reliance on eponymous archaeological sites and frequently exhibited limitations concerning precision and an incapacity to encompass or evaluate subtle formal variations.

Therefore, notwithstanding the absence of anthropological and/or contextual data, the morphostylistic and functional approach applied to Alpine productions, particularly those from the southern part of the Alps (i.e. Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Haute-Alpes and Haute-Savoie; Tremblay, this volume), enables the identification of their links with neighbouring communities. The limited number of documented belt plates in this region of the Alps offer a valuable illustration of the cultural affinity among communities on both sides of the Alps. These communities shared a common or similar inclination towards fashion, leading to the adaptation of common models and styles¹⁶.

At the same time, there has been a growing interest in the biographies of these objects and their social roles (Tori, this volume). Scholars has sought to ascertain the users of the artefacts in question, the contexts in which they were employed, the methods by which they were restored or reutilised, and whether they were preserved with the intention of serving as long-term markers of tradition¹⁷. Alternatively, they could have been dismissed expeditiously as responses to ephemeral fashions or foreign stimuli that were reinterpreted within local contexts.

Moreover, recent contributions have begun to explore less conventional research approaches, including the rationale behind waist adornment, the formal dimensions of these elements and their implications for bodily movement, and the potential for acoustic or reflective properties of belts to capture and direct attention, particularly in cases where they incorporate pendants¹⁸. It can thus be posited that such considerations may also have a pertinence with regard to belts featuring figurative motifs, which may possess a semiotic or symbolic significance beyond that of mere decorative embellishment¹⁹.

In this revised perspective, spatial analysis has also gained prominence. Concentrations and dispersions of finds and raw materials are now interpreted as indicators of complex processes of cultural interaction, trade and mimeticraft phenomena²⁰.

It is unsurprising that methodological convergences are emerging simultaneously across extensive territories and in traditionally disconnected research contexts, each of which is shaped by its own academic trajectories and influences. This phenomenon should be viewed as part of a broader restructuring of strategies for studying protohistoric material culture. Nevertheless, this phenomenon presents a unique opportunity for the study of ornamental elements of dress, allowing for the sharing of methodological advances and results drawn from diverse regional perspectives.

In this particular context, the workshop and the present book are not merely compilations of studies on a specific topic, but also an exercise in scholarly convergence. Our aim is in fact to ascertain the strengths of each research line and to formulate a shared, consensual strategy for the analysis and comparison of this category of objects. This initiative signifies a preliminary step towards a more ambitious research objective: the comprehension of the variations and evolution of fashion during the Iron Age in Europe.

The utilisation of diverse types of brooches or dress ornaments across various geographical areas is progressively recognised as a phenomenon profoundly interwoven with neighbouring cultures and shaped by shared supraregional codes of self-representation, albeit mediated by technical knowledge and access to raw materials.

The endeavour to comprehend the material culture of European late prehistory, a goal which Joseph Déchelette once aspired to achieve²¹, persists in its elusiveness if approached in isolation, as he did.

Accordingly, the initiative undertaken here, through international collaboration and the inclusion of diverse specialists with in-depth knowledge of their respective regions, opens up an optimistic outlook for a pan-European project.

By taking the various research methods under consideration, the available data sets and the specific limitations of the archaeological record in question, it is possible to establish a protocol for studying the material culture of European protohistory in a coordinated, collaborative and open manner.

Consequently, the study of belts – alongside fibulae, a longstanding focal point in protohistoric research – will progress from the state of existing, fragmented catalogues, written in disparate formats. This transition will occur as the study evolves into the foundation for a more extensive investigation into the dress practices and fashions of the communities and cultures that once populated and travelled this vast, ancient continent.

We would like to express our gratitude to Ausonius Éditions for embracing this work and for the excellent job carried out in its production. We also wish to thank the University of Alicante for providing the space that made the Workshop possible, as well as for its warm hospitality. Without a doubt, the success of this meeting lies with its participants.

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