Introduction
It was in the first 2,5 months of 1910, when Hermann Junker excavated the cemetery at Turah of the late Predynastic and Early Dynastic Period and published it two years later.1 The excavation area was delineated by the boundaries of the private property of the German family Lüthy (fig. 1) who had discovered the first tombs by accident during preparations for a well shaft and an aqueduct in 1903.2 Although Willibald Lüthy had promptly informed the archaeologists, so that George A. Reisner passed by in the same year to determine the age of the cemetery, it took until 1909 that finally excavations were taking place due to a variety of reasons.3 This delay had some effects on the state of preservation of the tombs, as a part of the cemetery was affected by the irrigation of the fields during these years.
The excavated cemetery consisted originally of two parts separated by a stretch of ca. 100 m of empty area (fig. 1). The larger portion to the west had, however, been separated by the just mentioned construction works into a northern and southern section (“N” and “S” in fig. 1) with the southern portion separated additionally by the pump station. Furthermore, next to the aqueduct a deep trench had been constructed by the Lüthy family, as irregular rainwaters from the wadis had devastated the property after 1903.4 These construction works led to the destruction of an unknown number of tombs, leaving 552 tombs which date from Naqada III-A2 to the end of the 1st Dynasty. This western part had developed consecutively from the southeast to the northwest as could already be substantiated by Junker5 and was affirmed by more recent studies.6 In the eastern part, only a small section was destroyed by the aqueduct and the trench, so that 30 tombs were left which date to the late 3rd and early 4th Dynasty.
Junker7 noticed the remains of further tombs in the hillslopes of a canal that had been constructed at the western edge of the land property of the Lüthy family shortly before the excavations took place (“SS” in fig. 1). Junker also surmised that the cemetery extended to the north of the Lüthy estate, where the first houses of Maadi had been erected only shortly before, for which he had, however, no excavation concession.8 In addition, during building activities for a road close to the Tura station, situated to the south-west of the Lüthy estate, workmen exhibited tombs dating to the Buto-Maadi-culture. All this suggested to Junker that the excavated part only represents the eastern edge of a much larger cemetery.9
Building thus only a proportion of the original extent, the excavated part nevertheless allows for a good insight into this cemetery, especially since its publication is not only of a rather high quality for its time but because a large part of the grave goods is still available in a limited number of museums. Thus, a re-documentation of the available objects was carried out by the author and her colleague Nicola Math during the last years in the course of a project funded by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF P-31551).
As Junker had made an unusual number of photographs, still some questions can be answered which were not addressed in Junker’s publication. In the following, thus some characteristics will be worked out for highlighting the role of child burials in this cemetery.
Burials of children at Turah
According to Junker’s publication, no spefic section was devoted to the burials of children at Turah, but they are occasionally mentioned in some paragraphs. Thus, according to Junker the use of baskets as body containers have been largely restricted to children.10 Junker furthermore refers to two child’s graves in the chapter on mudbrick tombs in the Eastern cemetery.11 And he notes in a further chapter that one of only four tombs consisting of a shallow shaft with a small cave on one side was used for the burial of a child.12
The most information can, however, be gathered from the graves’ list in which is often mentioned if the burial consisted of a child in the column reserved for “Bemerkungen”, i.e. remarks. Usually, this column is devoted to the state of preservation of the tomb or burial, the existence of pot marks or ink inscriptions and in a few cases some architectural details are noted, but not the age or sex of the deceased. Interestingly, when consulting the photographs (of which many more exist than published, as can be gleaned from the last column in the graves’ list), additional children can be discerned to those noted by Junker in his list. Thus, in the published grave list 34 children are mentioned while the photographs reveal at least 59. The visual identification of a child was based by the author on the overall size of the skeleton and the existence of clearly discernible epiphyses which are still loosely attached to the ends of the bones. Thus, only young children could be discerned while adolescents were not considered, as for their determination an anthropological expertise of the bones themselves would have been necessary. These are, however, not available anymore with the exception of one individual that had been taken to Vienna and which belonged to an adult of the Eastern cemetery.13
Regrettably the anthropologist Douglas E. Derry published only data for 29 individuals for the whole cemetery.14 This limited number is mainly due to the research question followed by Derry which was focused on the determination of the people’s race which he deduced from the shape and dimensions of the skulls.15
Thus, only three children are mentioned by Derry. It was a boy of 15 or 16 years – unfortunately no tomb no. is given for this skeleton, only that it belonged to the Eastern cemetery.16 The two others consisted of another boy of unknown age in tomb 20 – 15.f.217 and a girl of 12 years in tomb 063 – 16.g.8.18
Albeit the scope for interpretations of the child burials from Turah is thus regrettably rather limited, as neither an exact number exists nor have we got information on the sex or age, it will nevertheless be worthwhile to have a closer look on the existing evidence.
The distribution of the child burials
Albeit we were not able to determine the number of adolescents, it is striking that the rather restricted number of discernible children comprise only 9,8% (54 out of 552 burials) in the western part of the cemetery, while they represent 16,7% (5 out of 30 burials) in the eastern part. Even more striking is the next to complete absence of foeti and newborns. This suggests that the majority of children were buried in other premises. This situation is also known from other cemeteries and especially well-documented for Adaïma.19
Although we have until now no clear idea why some children were interred together with adults, while others were buried in other localities, it is quite interesting to note that this custom was not restricted to certain phases at Turah but can be found throughout the whole of the excavated cemetery, in the western part as well as in the eastern.
When scrutinizing the distribution of children’s tombs in the map (fig. 2), it seems that no specific area was preserved for children and that they are spread over the complete area. At the same time, there are certain areas in which no children’s graves were encountered, while they seem to be a bit more crowded in other parts. This pattern corresponds to the general outline of the cemetery revealing specific concentrations with larger gaps in between.20 This suggests that the people were probably buried according to families or clans leading to the interesting question, if the tombs of children differ in any way from those of adults.
Types of children’s graves
By considering the tomb types used at Turah, we first have to take a look on their definition by Junker,21 as this is not as straightforward as it might seem on first glance. First of all, it is irritating that Junker mixed the architectural features with body containers. Thus, the use of mats, baskets and coffins are presented in the same chapter and on the same level as pit tombs, mudbrick tombs or shaft tombs. Especially confusing is his paragraph on the use of wood, as he summarizes here wood used for coffins, for the furnishing of the chamber walls or its roof. In addition, neither is the enumeration of different types of body containers in the text consistent with their mention in the grave list nor coincide the designations in all cases, so that it is not always clear which information is the correct one, the one in his textual overview or the one in the grave list. In a few cases, the problem can be solved on the basis of the photographs but there are several cases in which the photographs do not reveal enough information.
By taking these discrepancies into account, we arrive at the following evidence: From the 582 tombs excavated by Junker in the whole cemetery, 479 consisted of simple pit tombs (82,3%), 92 of mudbrick tombs (15,8%), 8 of shaft tombs (1,4%) and 3 of cave tombs (0,5%).
When comparing this evidence with the types of tombs attested for children, we arrive at rather similar numbers: While for tomb 571 – 28.v.2 no information is given, 51 out of the 58 further children’s tombs consist of simple pit tombs (87,9%), while 6 children were buried in mudbrick tombs (10,3%) and one child in a shaft tomb (1,7%). Consequently, the percentage for children buried in simple pit tombs is slightly higher than for adults and a bit lower concerning the burials in mudbrick tombs. Interestingly, the percentage in the Eastern part differs considerably from these numbers, as here 60% of the children graves were constructed in mudbrick. This high percentage is suggestive and corresponds with the overall tendency to build more mudbrick tombs in younger periods, as the same percentage is valid for adults buried in mudbrick tombs in the Eastern cemetery.
Interestingly, the use of mudbricks for the construction of the children’s tombs did not mean that these tombs were automatically larger than simple pit tombs. On the contrary, the two smallest tombs discovered in the cemetery were mudbrick tombs: while tomb 566 – 28.t.6 was only 25 cm x 25 cm (fig. 3), tomb 553 – 27.t.1 had a dimension of 25 cm x 65 cm. Both these tombs were encountered in the Eastern cemetery and are thus dating to the 3rd or early 4th Dynasty. Due to this very small size, at least the former was certainly used for a foetus or newborn – the only one encountered in the whole cemetery. The largest mudbrick tomb for a child, tomb 370 – 19.m.6, was 60 cm x 90 cm, while the largest pit tomb for a child, 489 – 15.o.5, measured 110 cm x 170 cm.
The burial in a mudbrick tomb did also not mean that the tomb equipment was richer than in simple pit tombs. To the contrary, not only the numbers also the diversity is much larger in simple pit tombs (for details see below).
(© KHM Vienna).
A very similar picture is represented in the cemetery as a whole: Although the larger tombs were often constructed of mudbrick and the largest mudbrick tombs contained the largest amount of grave goods (at least 32 objects in tomb 344 – 11.m.1), there are many large pit tombs. Thus, for instance, pit tomb 539 – 11.p.8 held 29 grave goods and thus, the second largest amount at Turah. Altogether, there is no clear correlation between tomb type and the amount of grave goods. This holds true for adults as well as for children.
The types of body containers for children
Also, concerning the use and type of body containers a large variety can be observed. Here we have, however, to factor in denudations by the watering of the area that might have destroyed some of the evidence. It is nevertheless astounding how much of the rather fragile materials have been preserved over the millennia.
Thus, next to mats and baskets also coffins are attested, made of clay and wood.
Baskets as body containers
According to Junker22 baskets were next to exclusively restricted for the burial of children. He concluded that this is due to the restricted size, as for the accommodation of adults a much greater effort in their production would have been needed. Thus, five baskets can definitely be attributed to children, of which one was used in a mudbrick tomb, while the others were found in simple pit tombs. From its size, it can be concluded that the sixth basket was used for an adolescent or adult. This basket of oval shape with a lid nearly fills the pit whose size is given with 55 cm x 130 cm (tomb 470 – 11.o.6).
Of the five baskets for child burials one is reported to have been round (inside tomb in fig. 6 – not really visible), another oval, while two were rectangular and for the fifth no information is available. All the baskets had a lid in the same shape. This diversity suggests that baskets were not specifically produced for the burials but had been used in daily life before.
Two burials were found without any grave goods, two with one grave good (one of it in fig. 6 – beads, not visible) and in the fifth three items had been found.
Three of the burials with baskets date to the second half of the 1st Dynasty and two to the 3rd/4th Dynasty (one of it in fig. 6). That no baskets are reported for the older periods might be due to the worse conditions in the southern section of the western part of the cemetery.
Rather closely related to baskets are furthermore what Junker23 designated as “Mattenkörbe”, i.e. mats used like baskets. In these cases, the whole floor and lower part of the walls of the tomb were covered by a mat on which the dead body was laid and covered by second mat. Eight tombs with this construction can be identified in the cemetery, all dating to the 1st Dynasty and used for adolescents or adults. Thus, the impression created by Junker that the idea of baskets as burial containers was mainly restricted to children is not valid.
Mats as body containers
Usually mats were used as cover of the dead body, sometimes also overcasting the grave goods situated nearby.24 Junker noticed that mats are only attested for the northern part of the cemetery but points to the fact that the southern part was not only watered but was also more severely plundered.25
From the 33 mats attested in the cemetery, five tombs belonged to children. One was used in a mudbrick tomb, another in a shaft tomb with an anteroom, while the other three were encountered in simple pit tombs.
All further mats were encountered in simple pit tombs for adolescents or adults. Here, an interesting case is tomb 67 – 16.g.2 in which a clay coffin was covered by a mat.
In two of the five children tombs with mats no grave goods were deposited, while one tomb contained one item, another tomb two objects while in a third tomb three grave goods were found.
Clay coffins
From the 36 clay coffins attested in the whole cemetery, four can be doubtless attributed to the burial of children. For the coffin in tomb 129 – 16.h.2 the data are controversial, as Junker described its material as clay in the grave list, while it is designated unbaked mud in the text overview.26 Unfortunately, it is not possible to decide on the basis of the photograph, if the clay had been baked or not (fig. 4).
(© KHM Vienna).
All five coffins used for child burials were found in simple pit tombs, two of them had a lid, while no cover is mentioned for the three others. The size of these coffins is restricted so that they were not usable for adolescents or adults. They were therefore specific productions for children.
One of the children’s tombs with a clay coffin contained one grave good, another two had two grave goods and the two further had three items in the tomb.
From the 31 clay coffins attested for adults eight were found in mudbrick tombs, while the vast majority had been deposited in simple pit tombs.
Mud coffins
One of the three coffins mentioned in the previous chapter on clay coffins might have consisted in reality of unbaked mud (fig. 4). If so, this would be the only example used for a child.
Otherwise 26 coffins made of unbaked mud are attested at Turah, all of which in tombs of adolescents or adults. Three of these tombs were built of mudbrick, while the others were simple pit tombs.
Wooden coffins
In two cases a wooden coffin was used for the burial of a child. Both had been deposited in simple pit tombs. One burial had one grave good, the other one three.
It is rather difficult to define the overall number of wooden coffins in this cemetery due to Junker’s inconsistencies. There are only eight cases in which the attribution in the text27 and grave list are identical – the two coffins used for children included. In one case he mentions a wooden coffin in the text, but had put a question mark in the grave list. In two other cases he had put question marks in the text as well as in the grave list. In yet another case he wrote “wooden parts (coffin?)” in the text, while the possible identification as coffin is not mentioned in the grave list. And in a further case, he mentions a wooden coffin in the text, but describes in the grave list a pit tomb furnished with wood covering a layer of mud on the walls. As a result, we can speak doubtless of eight wooden coffins (including the two used for children) as minimum and 13 as maximum. All the wooden coffins were encountered in the western part of the cemetery, the oldest dating to Naqada III-B, the youngest to the end of the 1st Dynasty. No wooden coffin was encountered in the Eastern cemetery. All the wooden coffins for adolescents and adults were deposited in simple pit tombs. There is only one mudbrick tomb that might have contained a wooden coffin, but it is the aforementioned tomb for which Junker was not sure if the wooden parts belonged to a coffin or the furnishing of the tomb walls.
Summary of the body containers in children’s graves
When taking the evidence together, we can state that all types of body containers encountered for adolescents and adults are also attested for the children buried in this cemetery. While in most cases (42 out of 59 cases, i.e. 71,2%) no specific container for the burial of children could be observed, the 17 preserved body containers (i.e. 28,8%) represent the whole range also attested for adults (20,2%), albeit having in slightly higher rate.
With the exception of one basket and one mat which had been connected with a mudbrick tomb, all other body containers were found in simple pit tombs. A similar picture derives from the analyses of the tombs from the rest of the cemetery: also, in tombs of adolescents or adults no direct connection between tomb type and body container can be discerned. While baskets and mats seem to be simple and cheap versions for protecting a body, coffins made of mud, clay and wood are more elaborate and must have been produced before the burial, while the former could just have been taken from the households. Thus, the simplistic equation “the more elaborate the tomb construction, the more elaborate the furnishing” is not valid for this cemetery – at least not in a direct way. There is, however, no question that the building of a brick tomb, especially when it consisted of several rooms was much more elaborate than the digging of a simple pit. Thus, the question arises, if there had been other criteria at hand which symbolized the different status of certain persons. These might be found in the types and qualities of the grave goods.
Grave goods in children’s tombs
Concerning the status of grave goods, it would seem that the state of preservation of the tombs should have an important impact, as valuables would have been the target of tomb robbers from early on. In this respect we have to rely completely on the statements of Junker who had divided the conditions of the tombs in the following categories: “intact”, “burial intact” and “plundered”. In addition, there are cases in which he does not give any information. As for the latter, often no photographs are available and as he had declared that he made no photographs from tombs, which were devoid of any information,28 it would seem that they were even more severely robbed than those which he had noted as plundered. But at least for some tombs of this group, the little preserved information suggests that also other reasons were responsible for the lack of photographs and descriptions, because in several of these tombs burial goods were encountered.
While a severe plundering can easily be recognized on the state of preservation of the objects, we have no idea on which criteria Junker defined the intactness of a tomb or how he differentiated between a completely intact tomb and a tomb in which only the body was intact. As there are no means to verify this, we can only rely on his statements. In this regard, it is highly interesting to note that tombs reported as plundered and even those, for which a plundering is attested by the available photographs, we encounter objects we would define as valuables for robbers, such as jewellery. It is thus somehow mysterious what the robbers were looking for. It has to be surmised, however, that they were not interested in vessels of pottery or stone, so that their number should correspond with the original deposit. According to Junker they were largely filled with ashes or with mud29 but he did not note the individual cases. Thus, no comprehensive analyses can be made, as this was for instance provided for a part of the vessels by Nathalie Buchez for Adaïma who also referred to the ambivalence of the evidence on the one side and the symbolic character of vessel shapes on the other.30 But it has to be mentioned that a filling of ash and mud is also substantiated for other cemeteries and seems to have been more prevalent at the end of the Predynastic period and the beginning of the Early Dynastic period.31
From the 59 tombs attributable to children, 30 were defined by Junker as intact (i.e. 50,9%). In seven further cases he was not sure, if they were plundered or if only the body remained intact. For ten tombs he reported a definite plundering and for 12 tombs he did not give any information concerning their state of preservation, for many of these no photographs exist.
Children’s tombs without any grave goods
In 25 children’s tombs no grave goods were detected, this corresponds to 42,4% of all child burials. Of these 14 were defined by Junker as being intact, in two cases he was not sure if they were plundered and for eight he did not give any information.
Four of this group are mudbrick tombs, one is a shaft tomb and the other 20 were simple pit tombs. In one of the pit tombs and in the shaft tomb mats were encountered, while in two further pit tombs baskets (fig. 5) were used for the burials. Otherwise no burial containers are reported.
(© KHM Vienna).
While two mudbrick tombs were situated in the northern part of the western cemetery, the two others were found in the eastern part. Also, the shaft tomb was detected in the northern section of the western cemetery. In contrast to these, simple pit tombs are spread over the whole cemetery, starting from the oldest phase until the end of the occupancy.
Children’s tombs with one grave good
12 tombs for children were equipped with one grave good. Of these two are reported as having been plundered, in two others at least the burial was intact, for one no information is given, while six tombs were intact. Again, all these tombs are spread over both cemeteries. Except one mudbrick tomb (fig. 6), all others are simple pit tombs. In the mudbrick tomb, situated in the eastern cemetery without information of its state of preservation, a round basket with lid is attested as body container and beads as grave good. Also, in one of the intact pit tombs a necklace was encountered. Otherwise, the single grave good consisted of a pottery vessel which in most cases belonged to the closed vessels and in only one case to bowls. This latter was found together with a wooden coffin (fig. 7). A clay or mud coffin was found in a further pit tomb. while a second basket and a mat were encountered each in simple pit tombs.
(© KHM Vienna).
(© KHM Vienna).
Children’s tombs with two grave goods
A similar diversity is given in tombs containing two grave goods. They were encountered in eight tombs, all of which simple pit tombs. While in two tombs clay coffins (fig. 8) were encountered, in one tomb a mat is attested as burial container. Three of the tombs are reported as having been intact, for one at least the burial was intact, three are reported as being plundered (fig. 8) and for one no information is given.
(© KHM Vienna).
While in one of the plundered tombs a clay coffin with a lid was found (fig. 8), the pottery vessel(s) were completely broken. Interestingly, a necklace was still there (fig. 9) and it is the tomb for which Derry defined the skeleton to have belonged to a girl of twelve years. This is one of several astounding cases, as one would expect that the necklace should have been a target for the tomb robbers.
(© KHM Vienna).
In one of the three intact tombs, an armlet made of stone was found, while a further necklace was detected in the tomb without any information. Beside these three pieces of jewellery the grave goods consisted of pottery vessels of different shapes which had been shattered in the three tombs found plundered. Again, the majority of ceramics consisted of closed vessels while only two bowls were found, both in the same tomb.
Children’s tombs with three grave goods
In seven tombs three grave goods have been found, three were found plundered, three intact and in one case, it was not clear, if it was plundered or not. All these tombs were simple pit tombs.
In two tombs jewellery was found, interestingly both tombs are reported as having been plundered. In tomb 20 – 15.f.2 a boy was buried according to D. Derry.32 He had been found in a clay coffin with lid, while it is unclear where the necklace, the pottery cylinder jar and the cup made of limestone were deposited. Also, the second case is enigmatic, as the bones in tomb 272 – 18.k.1 (fig. 10) were found discarded. But an armlet made of copper (fig. 11), a necklace and an intact small pottery cylinder jar were found in this tomb.
(© KHM Vienna).
(© KHM Vienna).
With the exception of a cylinder jar made of calcite found in tomb 452 – 10.o.6, in which the child was buried in a wooden coffin, the other grave goods consisted of pottery vessels only. Interestingly, in nearly all the tombs of this group at least one bowl had been deposited alongside a variety of closed vessels.
Next to the clay coffin and the wooden coffin already mentioned, another clay coffin was found in one of the three plundered tombs. While a rectangular basket was encountered in one of the three intact tombs (fig. 12). This latter grave is especially interesting, as two of the three pottery vessels consist of feeding cups (fig. 13).
(© KHM Vienna).
(© KHM Vienna).
These tombs are spread over the southern and northern sections of the western part.
Children’s tombs with four grave goods
Three tombs for children were encountered with four items, while two consisted of simple pit tombs, one was a mudbrick tomb. Only in the latter, which had been plundered, had a mat as burial container. Again, it is the only one with jewellery, while in the intact pit tomb and another pit tomb without information of its state of preservation only pottery vessels were found. Again, in all three tombs bowls had been deposited alongside closed vessels.
The three tombs are restricted to the northern section of the western part.
Children’s tombs with five grave goods
Also, three tombs for children had five grave goods. Again, the only necklace of this group was found in a plundered tomb, while the intact grave 518 – 9.p.8a (fig. 14) and a tomb with an intact burial had a stone vessel each. Otherwise, the grave goods consisted again of pottery vessels. While in two cases, closed and open vessels are again combined, in the intact tomb a bowl consisted of stone and used as lid for a closed vessel (fig. 14). This latter tomb is especially interesting, as it is the only tomb in which the pit was divided by a mudbrick wall. While a cylinder jar typical for the mid – late 1st Dynasty was positioned in the neck of the child, a small squat jar covered by a stone bowl was situated at the feet. In addition, a beer jar covered with a lid was positioned outside the wall. It is the only beer jar in a child’s burial.
(© KHM Vienna).
All three tombs were simple pit tombs and had no specific body container. They are spread over all three cemetery areas.
Child burial with six grave goods
The intact simple pit tomb 251 – 16.k.7 (fig. 15) without specific burial container, situated in the southern section of the western part, was found with six objects: two palettes and four shells. While the palettes are rather large, nothing is known about the shells. In the cemetery some larger shells were used for mixing pigments which would fit well with the palettes. But, also small shells are attested in the cemetery which were used for jewellery. As the shells are not visible on the photograph and nothing is known yet of their whereabouts, it is not possible to elucidate their purpose. Otherwise, nothing else was found in this tomb.
(© KHM Vienna).
Child burial with fourteen grave goods
Another a simple pit tomb without burial container, tomb 455 – 10.o.9 (fig. 16), this time situated in the northern section of the western part of the cemetery, contained fourteen objects: Next to a necklace and an armlet made of ivory, 12 pottery vessels were deposited. This consisted of three bowls and nine closed vessels. Interestingly, most vessels appear in pairs of the same type.
(© KHM Vienna).
Summary of the grave goods deposited in children’s tombs
The most intriguing fact is of course that in many cases jewellery was found in tombs which had definitely been plundered. Thus, the question must remain open what the robbers were looking for and what in effect they were actually steeling. Otherwise, the existence of jewellery seems not to be connected to a specific tomb type or wealth of grave goods.
A second interesting observation concerns the variety of pottery and stone vessels deposited. While in tombs until up to three grave goods, bowls appear only irregularly alongside closed vessels, they seem to be standard from four grave goods onwards. In tombs with three grave goods or less, the greater importance seems to have been played by closed vessels. Otherwise no specific shape seems to have been prerogative. In this respect the tomb with fourteen objects is rather interesting, as here the doubling of vessels took place.
Nevertheless, the variety of shapes, concerning open as well as closed vessels is rather large. It seems that it was taken what had been at hand, that there was no norm of a prescribed or ideal burial kit. This touches a third interesting aspect: Can we discern any connections between the grave goods and the burial, in our case children.
For nearly all tombs, it would not be possible to tell from the grave goods, if it was dedicated to a child or an adult. But there are a very few exceptions.
Thus, very small pottery cylinder jars, belonging to Junker’s type LXX and LXXI, were mainly found in children’s tombs. A very specific pottery shape (fig. 13), only encountered in two exemplars which were deposited in the same tomb (424 – 15.n.3, fig. 12) and also known in Europe, was used as feeding cup for very small children. Here a connection between the burial and the grave goods is suggested. It seems probable that this child could not be fed naturally on its mother’s breast, be it that the mother did not live anymore or that she was not able to feed her child directly from her breast. That the feeding cups were given to the dead child might point to the former explanation, as otherwise the feeding cups could have been used for the next children. Or, they were connected with the wish that they would help the child in the hereafter.
In a similar direction the two large palettes might be interpreted that were found together with a child in tomb 251 – 16.k.7 (fig. 15). These two palettes are the only ones found in connection with a child and, interestingly, they are the two largest encountered at Turah. That such large palettes were deposited with a rather small child might hint to its death connected with a virulent eye disease, as pigments were regularly used against trachoma and other eye diseases.
A relationship between the size of vessels or the shape and the disease of the deceased was also suggested by Buchez33 for certain cases in Adaïma. In general, there are no direct hints to the status of the deceased, as neither coffins, the types or numbers of grave goods are directly connected with the architecture or size of the tombs.
Conclusion
The evaluation of the child burials at Turah reveal that they followed in their vast majority the rules also used for adolescents and adults. Only exceptionally there might be some hints on special burial practices which might be connected to specific causes of death (see last section).
As with the tombs for adults, the rate of tombs without any grave goods is surprisingly high. If grave goods were present, their number is rather restricted, with the majority ranging between one and three items, most of which consisting of pottery vessels. Only four children’s tombs had in addition a stone vessel. And there is only one tomb with palettes, while in nine tombs jewellery, mostly necklaces, were found. Surprisingly, in many cases they had been encountered in plundered tombs so that it remains a riddle what the tomb robbers were looking for.
As in other cemeteries of this period, only about 10% of the tombs belong to children and we have not yet got an explanation, why some were buried in this communal part and others not.
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Notes
- Junker 1912.
- Ibid., III.
- Hölzl & Müller 2023, 166-168.
- Junker 1912, III.
- Ibid., 5-10.
- Kaiser 1964, 108-109; Hendrickx 1996, 59; Wilkinson 1996, passim – but see Hendrickx 1999.
- Junker 1912, 1-2.
- Ibid., p. 25.
- Ibid., p. 2.
- Ibid., p. 12-13.
- Ibid., p. 20-21.
- Ibid., p. 24.
- Publication in preparation.
- Derry in Junker 1912, 86-95.
- Ibid., p. 87.
- Ibid., p. 93.
- Ibid, p. 90.
- Derry in Junker 1912, 92.
- Midant-Reynes & Buchez 2002; Crubézy et al. 2002; Crubézy 2017.
- Math 2021, 531-536.
- Junker 1912, 11-26.
- Ibid., p. 12.
- Ibid., p. 12.
- Ibid., p. 11-12.
- Ibid., p. 12.
- Ibid., p. 21.
- Ibid., p. 13-14.
- Junker 1912, IV fn. 1.
- Ibid., p. 31.
- Buchez 1998; Midant-Reynes & Buchez 2002; Crubézy et al. 2002.
- Buchez 1998, 102.
- Junker 1912, 90.
- Buchez 1998, 1999.
